This checklist covers everything in the module. Complete everything on this list before moving to Module FOUR.
Module 1 asked who you are as a teacher and how you build a classroom where learning can happen. Module 2 asked what you want students to learn and how to write objectives that say so. This module asks the next question: how do you turn those objectives into a plan, and how do you sequence the content so students can follow it?
Chapter 5 covers the full planning process. You start with factors that shape every decision: what your students already know, what content you need to teach, how much time you have, and what resources are available. From there, you build a unit plan (the big picture of a topic across multiple lessons) and a lesson plan (the specific sequence of one class period). The chapter gives you a model lesson plan format with nine elements, from the course title through the assessment. It also covers how expert teachers plan, which looks nothing like the linear process the textbook describes. Experts plan in their heads, sketch notes on sticky pads, and revise on the fly. You will get there. For now, the structured format teaches you to make your thinking visible.
Chapter 6 picks up where Chapter 5 leaves off. You have a plan. Now: in what order do you teach it? Sequencing is the art of arranging content so each piece builds on the last. The chapter gives you four principles (start simple, use concrete examples, add complexity, introduce abstractions) and three organizational models for structuring a lesson: Task Analysis (break a skill into substeps), Concept Analysis (teach a concept through its characteristics, examples, and non-examples), and Advance Organizer (give students the big picture first, then fill in the details). The chapter also covers learning styles, Gardner's multiple intelligences, and hemispheric brain function, all of which affect how you vary your teaching methods within a single lesson.
These two chapters work together. Chapter 5 decides what goes in the plan. Chapter 6 decides what order it goes in and which organizational model fits the content. Your Lesson Plan assignment asks you to do both: document the planning decisions, then write the plan with a sequencing justification. Your Model Match Analysis asks you to recognize these models in other teachers' work and argue about which one fits best.
The decisions you make before you teach: content, time, resources, student readiness, objectives, and the unit and lesson plan formats that hold it all together.
Four rules: begin with a simple step, use concrete examples, add complexity as you progress, introduce abstractions last. Content moves from facts to concepts to generalizations.
Three ways to structure a lesson: Task Analysis (skill into substeps), Concept Analysis (concept through characteristics), Advance Organizer (big picture first, details second).
Learning styles, Gardner's eight intelligences, hemispheric brain function. One method does not reach every student. The question is which methods to combine and when.
All the learning materials for this module are on a single page, organized into the tabs at the top. Click any card below to go to a tab.
On this tab you will find the readings, assignment descriptions with rubrics, VoiceThread prompt, bonus resources, and the exit ticket.
Chapter 5: planning factors, the Instructional Planning Cycle, unit planning, lesson plan format, the Kaplan Matrix, and how expert teachers plan.
Chapter 6, Section 1: four sequencing principles, content forms hierarchy (facts, concepts, generalizations), deductive vs. inductive reasoning.
Chapter 6, Section 2: Task Analysis, Concept Analysis, and Advance Organizer. Three models for organizing a lesson, with interactive activities for each.
Chapter 6, Section 3: hemispheric brain function, learning styles, Gardner's multiple intelligences, and varying your teaching techniques.
Branching scenarios from both chapters. Planning decisions go wrong. Sequencing breaks down. You fix it or live with the consequences.
Required videos: instructor walkthroughs for Chapters 5 and 6, plus supplementary content on planning and sequencing.
Keep these in mind as you work through the chapters and activities.
In this module, you will be able to:
A quick reference. These are the figures behind the ideas in Chapters 5 and 6.
This assignment has two parts. In Part 1, you document the planning decisions that led to your lesson. In Part 2, you write the lesson itself. Every decision in Part 1 should be visible in the lesson you build in Part 2.
Part 1: Planning Decisions (40 pts)
Before writing your lesson plan, document the decisions that shaped it. Each section must cite the relevant section of Chapter 5.
A. Planning Factors (Section 5-1): What do your students already know about this topic? What content will you teach? How much time do you have? What resources are available? Name specific factors, not general categories.
B. Content Decisions (Section 5-4, connecting to Chapter 6): Identify the facts, concepts, and generalizations for your topic. Use the content forms hierarchy from Chapter 6 (Figure 6.2) to show how the pieces relate.
C. Rationale and Objectives (Section 5-3): Why does this lesson matter for these students at this grade level? Write 2-3 learning objectives at different Bloom's levels. Explain why you chose those levels for this content.
D. Sequencing Justification (Chapter 6): Explain the order of your lesson using at least one of Chapter 6's sequencing principles or organizational models (Task Analysis, Concept Analysis, or Advance Organizer). Name the model or principle and show how your lesson follows it.
Part 2: Lesson Plan (60 pts)
Use your program's lesson plan template. Your plan must include:
Demographics and standards. Student learning objective. Materials list. Introduction/engagement (students do something in the first five minutes). Direct instruction (step-by-step, aligned with standard, includes modeling, detailed enough for a substitute to teach). Student-centered guided practice (hands-on, aligned with standard). Independent learning with a formal assessment (include an answer key or grading rubric). Closure/evaluation (captures main points, checks for understanding).
Attach all supporting materials: graphic organizers, worksheets, slides, assessment tools. A substitute can open your submission and teach the lesson without asking you a question.
You may complete this assignment individually or in pairs. If working in pairs, both partners submit the final product.
Assignment: Model Match Analysis
Submit in Canvas →| Criterion | Pts | Top | Mid | Low |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Planning Factors | 10 | Names specific student knowledge, content scope, time constraints, and resources. Each factor connects to a lesson decision. Cites Section 5-1. | Names factors but connections to lesson decisions are vague. Citation present but generic. 7 | Lists factors without connecting them to the lesson. No citation. 4 |
| Content Decisions | 10 | Identifies facts, concepts, and generalizations for the topic. Content hierarchy is clear and matches Chapter 6's framework. | Identifies some content forms but hierarchy is incomplete or mislabeled (e.g., a concept labeled as a fact). 7 | Content forms missing or not distinguished from each other. 4 |
| Rationale & Objectives | 10 | Rationale explains why this content matters for these students at this level. Objectives target 2-3 Bloom's levels with justification for each. Cites Section 5-3. | Rationale present but generic. Objectives present but Bloom's levels not justified. 7 | Rationale missing or restates the standard. Objectives vague or all at the same cognitive level. 4 |
| Sequencing Justification | 10 | Explains lesson order using a named sequencing principle or organizational model from Chapter 6. Justification matches the actual lesson structure. | Names a principle or model but connection to lesson structure is unclear. 7 | No sequencing justification, or the justification contradicts the lesson's order. 4 |
| Introduction / Engagement | 10 | Opening connects to students' prior knowledge and creates a reason to care about the content. Students do something in the first five minutes. | Opening present but passive (teacher talks, students listen). Connection to prior knowledge stated but not activated. 7 | No introduction, or the opening is unrelated to the lesson content. 4 |
| Direct Instruction | 15 | Aligned with standard. Step-by-step, a substitute could teach it. Includes modeling. Content sequencing matches the justification from Part 1. | Aligned with standard but steps vague in places. Modeling mentioned but not described. 10 | Not aligned with standard, or steps too vague to follow. No modeling. 5 |
| Guided Practice | 15 | Student-centered, hands-on. Aligned with standard. Students apply content with teacher support. Activity described in enough detail to replicate. | Activity present but teacher-directed, or description lacks replicable detail. 10 | No guided practice, or activity disconnected from the learning objective. 5 |
| Independent Learning & Closure | 10 | Independent practice measures student mastery with quantitative data. Answer key or rubric included. Closure captures main points and checks understanding. | Assessment present but does not clearly measure the objective, or closure summarizes without checking understanding. 7 | No assessment, no answer key, or closure missing. 4 |
| Supporting Materials | 10 | All referenced materials (graphic organizers, worksheets, slides, assessment tools) attached and complete. A substitute could use them without explanation. | Some materials attached but incomplete or missing pieces referenced in the plan. 7 | No supporting materials attached, or materials do not match the lesson. 4 |
Part 1: Identify the Model (30 pts)
For each of the three lessons, identify which organizational model the teacher used and explain how you know. Cite specific features from Chapter 6's description of each model. "This looks like Task Analysis" is not enough. Name the structural elements you see (e.g., terminal objective, enabling skills, dependent sequence) and connect them to the chapter.
Part 2: Replan One Lesson (30 pts)
Pick one of the three lessons. Replan it using a different organizational model. Submit the replanned lesson sequence (step-by-step, detailed enough to teach from) and explain what changed and why. Your explanation must address: what the new model emphasizes that the original did not, what the new approach gains, and what it loses.
Part 3: Best Fit Argument (15 pts)
For the lesson you replanned, write a short argument (200-400 words) for which model is the better fit for that content and those students. Reference Chapter 6's discussion of when each model works best. Take a clear position and support it with the specifics of the lesson, not generalities about the models.
The Three Lessons
Lesson A: Kindergarten, Science Ms. Ramirez teaches a kindergarten class about living and nonliving things. She begins by holding up a goldfish in a bowl and a plastic toy fish. She asks: "What is different about these two fish?" Students share observations. She writes two lists on chart paper: "Things the real fish does" and "Things the toy fish does." The class adds items (swims, eats, grows vs. stays the same, does not eat). Ms. Ramirez introduces the terms "living" and "nonliving" and asks students to name the characteristics that make something living: it grows, it needs food and water, it can move on its own, it reproduces. She then gives each table a bag of ten objects (a rock, a leaf, a battery-powered car, a caterpillar, a shell, a pencil, a seed, a stuffed animal, a flower, a marble). Students sort them into two groups. When they finish, she asks students to hold up any object they were unsure about. The seed and the shell cause disagreement. She asks: "Does a seed grow? Does it need water? Is it living?" Students revise their sorts. She closes by asking: "Is a wooden table living or nonliving? It came from a tree, which was living."
Lesson B: 4th Grade, Mathematics Mr. Okafor is teaching fourth graders to measure angles using a protractor. He starts with a review: "Last week we learned that angles are formed when two rays share the same endpoint. Who can show me an angle with their arms?" Students make angles. He asks: "Which angle is bigger?" and has two students stand next to each other with different arm positions. He then introduces the protractor by projecting it on the screen and labeling its parts: the baseline, the center point, and the degree markings. He models how to measure an angle: (1) place the center point on the vertex, (2) align the baseline with one ray, (3) read the degree where the second ray crosses the scale. He models this with three angles, thinking aloud through each step. Students practice measuring a pre-drawn 90-degree angle together, checking with partners. Then he gives each student a worksheet with six angles in increasing difficulty: a 90-degree, a 45-degree, a 120-degree, a 30-degree, a 160-degree, and a 75-degree angle. Students measure each one and record the result. He circulates and checks each student's protractor placement. The lesson closes with an exit ticket: measure one angle, write the degree, and explain in one sentence how you know your measurement is correct.
| Criterion | Pts | Top | Mid | Low |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model ID: Lesson A | 10 | Correctly identifies the model. Cites specific structural features from Chapter 6 and connects them to the lesson. | Correct identification, but explanation is generic or does not cite Chapter 6. 7 | Incorrect identification, or identification with no explanation. 4 |
| Model ID: Lesson B | 10 | Same criteria as Lesson A. | Same as above. 7 | Same as above. 4 |
| Model ID: Lesson C | 10 | Same criteria as Lesson A. | Same as above. 7 | Same as above. 4 |
| Replanned Lesson Sequence | 15 | Replanned sequence follows the structure of the chosen model. Each step is described clearly enough to teach from. Differences from the original are visible and intentional. | Follows the general idea of the model but misses key structural elements (e.g., an advance organizer plan without the integration phase). 10 | Sequence does not follow the model's structure, or changes from the original are cosmetic. 5 |
| What Changed & Why | 15 | Explains what the new model emphasizes, what is gained, and what is lost. Shows understanding of the tradeoffs between models with specifics from the lesson. | Explains changes but analysis is surface-level. Gains and losses not addressed or vague. 10 | No explanation of changes, or explanation contradicts the models as described in Chapter 6. 5 |
| Best Fit Argument | 15 | Takes a clear position. Argument references content type, students, and Chapter 6's guidance on when each model works best. Reasoning is specific to this lesson. | Takes a position but argument is generic or does not connect to specific content and students. 10 | No clear position, or argument contradicts the chapter's discussion of the models. 5 |
Self-Check
✍ Check Your Understanding A teacher wants to teach the concept of "democracy" to a fourth-grade class. Should the teacher use deductive reasoning (start with a definition, then give examples) or inductive reasoning (start with examples, then build toward the definition)? Why? Either approach can work, but the choice depends on the students. Inductive reasoning (start with examples) works well for fourth graders because they can examine concrete cases first: "In our classroom, we vote on which book to read. The majority wins. What if one person decided for everyone?" Students build toward the abstraction from familiar ground. Deductive reasoning (start with the definition) works if students have enough background to make sense of the definition immediately. For most fourth graders, starting concrete and moving to abstract follows Chapter 6's sequencing principles: begin with a simple step, use concrete examples, and introduce abstractions last.
✍ Check Your Understanding What is the difference between a fact, a concept, and a generalization? Give an example of each using the topic "weather." Fact: "The boiling point of water is 100°C at sea level." Observable, specific, has predictive value only for this one case. Concept: "Evaporation." A category with characteristics (liquid turning to gas, requires heat, occurs at any temperature). You learn it through examples and non-examples. Generalization: "Warm air holds more moisture than cold air." An inferential statement that expresses a relationship between concepts and can be used to make predictions (e.g., why humid days feel hotter, why dew forms in the morning). Facts are the building blocks. Concepts group facts into categories. Generalizations connect concepts into relationships (Chapter 6, Figure 6.2).
What is the difference between a fact, a concept, and a generalization? Give an example of each using the topic "weather."
Fact: "The boiling point of water is 100°C at sea level." Observable, specific, has predictive value only for this one case. Concept: "Evaporation." A category with characteristics (liquid turning to gas, requires heat, occurs at any temperature). You learn it through examples and non-examples. Generalization: "Warm air holds more moisture than cold air." An inferential statement that expresses a relationship between concepts and can be used to make predictions (e.g., why humid days feel hotter, why dew forms in the morning). Facts are the building blocks. Concepts group facts into categories. Generalizations connect concepts into relationships (Chapter 6, Figure 6.2).
Before you leave this module, take a few minutes with the prompt below. Submit your response in the Exit Ticket: Module 3 assignment in Canvas (25 points).
Every lesson you teach starts with a set of decisions you make before you walk into the room. What do your students already know? What content are you teaching? How much time do you have? What resources can you use? Chapter 5 calls these planning factors, and they shape every choice that follows.
Planning is not filling out a template. The template is the output. Planning is the thinking that produces it: identifying what matters, deciding what to cut, sequencing the pieces, and building an assessment that tells you whether students learned what you intended. This tab walks through that process.
Before you choose a teaching strategy or write an objective, you need to answer several questions about the context. The textbook identifies six categories of factors. Each one constrains or expands what you can do in a lesson.
Students are the reason for your instruction. What do you know about them individually and as a group? Are they easy or difficult to motivate? What do they already know about the subject you plan to teach? How might they have learned it? What accommodations will be needed for specific students? These questions shape your content decisions, your pacing, and your choice of activities.
What main ideas are involved? Will you need to teach prerequisite skills? In what order should the instruction be structured? Can you devise a variety of learning activities and instructional methods to teach the material? Thinking processes (imagining, problem solving, comparing, classifying, and others from Chapter 4) are as important as content. Identify which thinking processes your students will need to understand the material.
How much time is available for this part of the instruction? Are other school functions (assemblies, plays, extracurricular activities, holidays, vacations) likely to interfere? Do you need more than one day or one period? These constraints are real. You will never have enough time to teach everything you want. The question becomes: what must be included and what can wait?
Does your school have computer-assisted instructional resources? Are there community resources (historical sites, museums, art galleries, guest speakers) you can use? School librarians can help you find resources and suggest ways to include them in your instruction. The internet offers a tremendous amount of educational material. If you are selective and can adapt the materials you find to fit your students and objectives, cyberspace can be a positive force in your planning.
Are there district or state learning outcomes or standards to be considered? Graduation requirements? Legal requirements for special students? Curriculum guides, standards documents, and textbook adoptions all constrain and direct your planning. You should also know what other teachers in your building are teaching so you can coordinate and avoid unnecessary repetition.
How knowledgeable are you about the material you plan to teach? Can you present what you know in terms that students will understand? Your own comfort level, content expertise, and willingness to experiment with new methods all affect the lesson. Teachers who are honest about their own gaps plan better than teachers who pretend to know everything.
Activity: Sort the Planning Factors
Drag each consideration into the correct planning factor category.
Planning is not a straight line. It is a cycle with three stages, and you move back and forth between them as you teach. The cycle connects planning to teaching to reflection, and the reflection feeds back into the next round of planning.
Long-range plans, content decisions, processes to emphasize, student entry skills and readiness level, learning activities, reflections and notes from previous teaching.
Unit subject, questions and concepts, goals and objectives, learning activities and resources, teaching strategies, assessment tools.
Evaluate the lesson: did students meet the objectives? What worked? What would you change? Keep planning notes. Revise for next time.
A unit is a chunk of instruction organized around a single topic, taught over several days or weeks. You cannot teach everything about a subject at once, so you break it into units and sequence them across a semester. Each unit contains facts, concepts, and generalizations. You choose which ones matter most for your students and your time constraints.
The Kaplan Matrix (Table 5.1) is a planning tool that maps content against Bloom's levels. For each topic, you plan activities at the knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation levels. The matrix forces you to think beyond recall: what will students do with this content at each cognitive level?
Activity: Build a Kaplan Matrix Row
Drag each activity to the Bloom's level it targets. The topic is "Volcanoes" for a 4th-grade science unit.
The textbook presents a model lesson plan with nine elements. The intent of each part should be clear, but here is a brief expansion of each one. These are the same elements you will use in your Lesson Plan assignment.
The unit title identifies where this lesson fits in the larger sequence. A lesson on measuring angles belongs in a unit on geometry, which belongs in a semester of fourth-grade math.
A general instructional objective might be: "Each student will understand the relationship among voltage, resistance, and current in an electrical circuit." A lesson typically reinforces several objectives. This lesson might focus on content but could also reinforce skills and attitudes.
These are the specific objectives of this lesson. You might have several. An example: "Using Ohm's Law for calculations, the student will correctly determine the needed values in each of the following circuits..." These are measurable and tied to the assessment.
The rationale is the same as for the unit plan but stated in a way that relates this lesson to the unit. Why this particular lesson is important in achieving the unit goals. "To use electricity safely in the home, shop, and business, it is necessary to understand how current, voltage, and resistance are related."
Separate in your mind (and on paper) the content and skills you want students to learn and the procedures or techniques you will use to teach them. Under "Content," list the specific concepts or ideas. Under "Skills/Processes," list the thinking operations students will use.
List the specific methods you will use to teach each part of the lesson. For a lesson on electrical circuits, some parts might be done by questioning to review an earlier lesson and establish focus on this one. Other parts might have students experiment with a circuit in small groups or view a video and take notes.
Include a brief explanation of what you will do to determine whether students have reached the objectives. For a lesson on electrical circuits, students' answers to the computations and explanations of how the problems were solved would be sufficient for assessment.
Closure is how you end the lesson. It should capture the main points and give you (and the students) a sense of whether the objectives were met. An exit ticket, a quick-write, or a partner share all work. The goal is to end with intention, not with the bell.
List every material, technology tool, handout, and piece of equipment the lesson requires. If it is not on this list, it will not be in the room when you need it. This is the section a substitute reads first.
Expert teachers plan differently from beginners. Most routine tasks (roll call, distributing papers, collecting homework, giving assignments, recording grades) are on autopilot. Expert teachers revise and refine plans built from years of teaching the same material. They keep notes, build resource folders, and adjust on the fly.
The structured lesson plan format you are learning is a training tool. It makes your decisions visible so you (and your instructor) can examine them. Over time, you will internalize the process and plan with less paper and more instinct. The format does not go away. It becomes the scaffolding inside your head instead of the document on your desk.
Planning must be flexible. Every model the teacher uses, a teacher must first plan. The plan must be flexible so it can be adapted to fit the actual teaching moment. Exercise flexibility in your delivery of instruction.
Planning tells you what to teach. Sequencing tells you in what order. The sequence you choose determines whether students build understanding layer by layer or hit a wall because you skipped a foundation. Chapter 6 opens with four principles that apply to all sequencing decisions, then breaks content into three forms: facts, concepts, and generalizations. Each form has its own logic for how students learn it.
This tab covers the first section of Chapter 6. The Models and Multi-Method tabs cover Sections 2 and 3.
Sequencing is the art of developing a logical plan for instructional activities that helps students master a body of knowledge in an organized way. It serves two purposes. The first is to relate the knowledge or process being taught to a larger organized body of knowledge: what the student is learning fits inside something bigger. The second is to help students master content under varying conditions.
A sequence is an instructional process. It establishes a schedule for learning the various parts of related content. In math, there is a widely accepted hierarchy of knowledge: you learn addition before multiplication, fractions before algebra. In social studies, the hierarchy is less obvious, and the teacher or curriculum committee makes more of the sequencing decisions.
If a content hierarchy exists, the sequence of instruction establishes a hierarchy for the student. If no hierarchy exists, the teacher builds one. Either way, sequencing decisions are yours to make and defend.
The textbook identifies four principles that guide sequencing across subjects and grade levels. They are interactive: you may need to go back to a previous step to help explain the ideas currently under discussion.
Always begin with a simple step. This does not mean you "talk down" to your students. It means you structure your lessons so learners can understand identified characteristics of the content easily. Use analogies, provide numerous examples, and start with something familiar.
Use materials, simulations, models, or artifacts that illustrate the fact, concept, or generalization being taught. A biology class example is better than a biology class definition. Students need to see and touch the idea before they can abstract from it.
Sequence the learning experience so it becomes more complex as you progress. Introduce additional variables, generate new sets of criteria, or establish relationships between the content of the lesson and other content. Each step builds on the one before it.
The final principle is to introduce abstractions. "When you are sick, why does the doctor start an examination by checking your blood pressure and listening to your heartbeat?" You move from the concrete and observable to the abstract and inferential.
Activity: Match the Sequencing Principle
Each teaching move below follows one of the four principles. Drag each move to the correct principle.
Content exists in three primary forms, and they stack in a hierarchy. Facts sit at the base. Concepts are built from facts. Generalizations are built from concepts. Understanding this hierarchy helps you sequence lessons that build upward instead of jumping around.
The hierarchy is easier to see in a real example than in the abstract. Hover any colored piece to see which content form it is and how it stacks on the others.
On Mars, scientists found basalt deposits. Basalt is an igneous rock formed from cooled lava. The presence of basalt on both Earth and Mars suggests that volcanic processes operate similarly across rocky planets.
A discrete, verifiable observation. Single answer. No interpretation. You can confirm it with a Mars rover image. Facts are the floor of every concept.
"Igneous rock" names a category with defining characteristics: forms from cooled magma or lava. Membership is determined by origin, not just appearance. Built from facts but more powerful than any one fact.
A predictive claim spanning multiple concepts (volcanism, rock formation, planetary geology). Holds across many instances. This is what students need in order to transfer knowledge to a new context, like a future Mars sample they have not yet seen.
A fact is a type of content that is singular in occurrence, occurs or exists in the present tense, and has no predictive value. Facts are acquired through observation. Examples: "Olympia is the capital of Washington." "The sun set at 4:15 pm today." "President Obama was a senator from Illinois."
The primary means of learning facts is through memorization and recall. Facts sit at the lowest level of Bloom's taxonomy: knowledge (or remembering). Learning facts is foundational, but learning a list of facts alone does not produce understanding.
Concepts are expressions, usually one or two words, or ideas that have common characteristics. "Nouns" are a concept. "Democracy" is a concept. They are the result of categorizing a number of observations.
All concepts have five components: a name, a definition, characteristics, examples, and a place in a hierarchy (superordinate, coordinate, and subordinate concepts). Concept learning takes place at all grade levels. Young children form concepts of what cats and dogs are based on their observations. The content hierarchy for nouns includes superordinate concepts (parts of speech), coordinate concepts (verb, adjective), and subordinate concepts (common, proper, pronoun).
A generalization is an inferential statement that expresses a relationship between two or more concepts. It applies to more than one event and has predictive and explanatory value. "People who smoke have a higher incidence of lung cancer than those who do not" is a generalization. It states a relationship, is predictive, and applies to anyone who smokes.
Generalizations are often confused with facts, but there are three key differences: (1) generalizations condense a large amount of data, while facts are singular; (2) facts are statements of events in the past or present, while generalizations are statements about general trends or patterns; (3) generalizations can be used to make predictions, while facts cannot.
The hierarchy works like this: facts support concepts, and concepts support generalizations. As students proceed from facts to concepts and then to generalizations, the amount of information increases and becomes more complex. Using Bloom's taxonomy: facts are at the knowledge level, concepts are at the comprehension level, and generalizations are at the application and analysis levels.
Activity: Sort the Content Forms
Drag each statement into the correct content form category.
There are two basic modes of thinking: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning moves from the general to the specific. Inductive reasoning moves from the specific to the general. The type of reasoning you select will determine the sequence of lesson activities.
Start with the rule, definition, or generalization. Then provide examples. Mr. Fisher began a lesson on magnetism by giving each student a handout. On the handout was the statement: "Magnets are attracted to some objects and not to others, and the things magnets are attracted to are called metals." He then had students test objects with magnets to confirm the statement.
Start with examples and observations. Guide students toward the rule. Ms. Shannon gave each student a magnet and a bag of objects: paper clips, buttons, an iron nail, a penny, a plastic chip, an aluminum nail, and a pencil. She asked students to observe what happened when the magnet was applied to each object. After exploring, the class sorted their observations into lists and formed the generalization together.
Both teachers were teaching the same content, and both wanted their students to learn the same generalization. The difference is in the sequence. Mr. Fisher initiated the activity with a generalization (deductive). Ms. Shannon started with observations (inductive). Both used magnets, examples, and questioning. The sequence is what changed.
Your chosen mode of presentation is determined by the lesson objectives. If you want students to understand the process by which a generalization is formed, use the inductive approach. If your primary concern is that students know a particular concept or generalization, you may want to use the deductive approach. The mode of thinking you use is determined by the objective.
The textbook's Figure 6.1 shows a hierarchy for student success. At the bottom: simple, concrete facts. In the middle: concepts built from those facts. At the top: abstract generalizations built from those concepts. If a student fails to learn at a higher level, the teacher recycles back to a lower level and rebuilds.
Consider a graphing sequence from first grade through middle school. First graders measure plant growth and glue paper strips to a chart: a concrete histogram. Second graders add axes and scales. Third graders make bar graphs with data they collect. By middle school, students interpret complex data sets. Each year adds complexity while building on the concrete foundation from the year before. The same content (graphing) is taught across ten years, but the sequence moves from simple to complex, concrete to abstract.
The four sequencing principles are interactive. You may need to go back to a previous step to help explain the ideas currently under discussion. If a student cannot grasp a generalization, recycle to the concept level. If the concept is unclear, go back to concrete examples. This is not failure. It is the sequence working as designed.
Section 1 covered the principles and content forms. Section 2 introduces three models for organizing lessons. Each model provides a structure for sequencing objectives and activities. Each model has strengths, and no model is inherently superior. The teacher who is a decision maker should choose the one that best fits the content, the students, and the objective.
These three models are the ones you will identify and analyze in the Model Match assignment. Study them here, then test yourself in the Apply It tab.
Robert Gagné used the task analysis model to study the effects of a hierarchical structure on learning. The model subdivides a lesson's content, concepts, or processes into smaller, sequential steps, beginning with the least complex and progressing to the most complex. It has been used in industrial, military, and technological settings for decades, and it works well in any subject where skills build on each other.
The model produces a learning hierarchy chart. The top of the chart contains the terminal objective: what students should achieve after a series of planned instructional encounters. Below the terminal objective, the teacher lists intermediate objectives (enabling skills). Students who cannot master the basic skills at the bottom of the chart will probably not reach the learning objectives at higher levels.
1. Select an instructional objective at the appropriate level of difficulty. Make this initial determination by examining the structure of the content area (math, health, social studies). Check whether the original objective is at the right level of difficulty. This process is called diagnostic vigilance.
2. Identify the enabling skills students need to attain the objective. In a physical education class, students learning to bat need: grip, stance, positioning the club face, using the appropriate amount of force, executing the backswing, following through, and mentally visualizing the ball's path.
3. Subdivide independent and dependent enabling skills and learning sequences. Independent skills can be learned in any order. Dependent skills must be learned in a specific sequence because one skill is essential before the next can be mastered.
4. Arrange the sequences in order. Use this sequence to construct a lesson that progressively facilitates the learning of the terminal objective.
5. Sequence specific tasks for students. Plan the sequence in which you will conduct the class. Identify the instructional objectives, plan the appropriate activities, obtain the materials, plan the strategies, evaluate the students, and develop a student assessment.
Independent skills can be learned in any order. When you learned to tie your shoes, it did not matter whether you started with the right or left shoe. The activities are independent of each other.
Dependent skills must be learned in a specific sequence because accomplishment of one skill is essential before the next skill in the series. In T-ball, the players learn how to swing, followed by learning how to stand while swinging the bat. The successful hitting of the ball is dependent on the sequence of skills.
Task analysis works best when the content is procedural or hierarchical: math operations, science lab procedures, physical skills, writing processes, or any skill where the steps build on each other. It is especially useful for planning instruction for children with special needs (multidisciplinary or multicultural activities), and for identifying learning deficits when students are struggling. If you observe a student failing, you can analyze the task to find which enabling skill is missing.
The teaching of concepts encompasses a substantial portion of all instruction. Science requires students to understand systems, energy, plants, and animals. Language arts applies the concepts of communication, paragraphs, parts of speech, and punctuation. A review of literature reveals that concept analysis is used in almost every subject at every grade level.
When you teach a concept, you must use both sequencing and task analysis. You have two sequencing options:
1. Start by describing the concept, follow with an analysis of characteristics (facts) and a series of illustrations or examples (deductive).
2. Provide examples (facts) related to the concept and allow students to discover the concept themselves (inductive).
A concept analysis includes the following components:
Concepts form hierarchies. The concept "parts of speech" is superordinate to "noun." The concept "noun" has coordinate concepts: verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun. And "noun" has subordinate concepts: common noun, proper noun.
A concept hierarchy provides the teacher with a sequencing technique. To teach the concept "proper noun," the teacher must first demonstrate the characteristics that make a proper noun both "proper" and a "noun." Then the teacher provides examples that illustrate the characteristics of a proper noun. The concept analysis hierarchy is an excellent procedure for accomplishing this task.
One of the most effective methods for teaching concepts is the use of examples. In planning a lesson, the teacher must come up with enough examples to illustrate the dominant characteristics adequately. For concrete concepts such as "dog" or "verb," it is easy to find good examples. For concepts such as "justice" or "democracy," you need to develop examples carefully because the abstract nature of these concepts makes them harder to illustrate.
Providing examples of coordinate concepts often helps students understand the characteristics of the concept being taught. Negative examples (nonexamples) can also be used to help students understand the concept.
The advance organizer model is based on David Ausubel's (1968) classic explication of deductive learning. The model is built on an advance organizer, which is a statement of the elements that the learner will be required to master in the lesson. It is designed to introduce the material that follows and must be broad enough to encompass the information.
The purpose of the advance organizer model is to provide students with a structure so they can see how the parts relate to the whole and to each other. Think of it as a map of the lesson: the organizer shows you the territory before you walk through it.
Phase 1: Present the Advance Organizer. An abstract introductory statement related to previously learned material that encompasses all aspects of the lesson. It defines or generalizes the information to be learned. Start here: if each student understands the advance organizer, each part of the lesson can be more easily understood.
Phase 2: Content Differentiation. The content is subdivided into narrower and less inclusive ideas, isolating each fact, concept, or generalization within a hierarchy so that it can be learned independently. The teacher uses the statement: "A metaphor is one kind of figure of speech. The primary characteristics of a metaphor are..." and moves from the broad concept to its specific attributes.
Phase 3: Integration. The process of teaching students how main concepts and underlying facts are related or how underlying facts are different or similar. In the English lesson example, the teacher makes certain that students understand the relationship between figures of speech and metaphors (one is a broad category to which the other belongs) and that they comprehend the differences and similarities between metaphors and similes (they are both in the same category, but similes use "like" or "as").
Graphic organizers are visual representations: diagrams, webs, matrices, flowcharts, hierarchy charts. They help students visualize and explain the relationships among the information to be taught. They are an important part of sequencing and organizing information.
Common types include: historical time lines, flowcharts, bar graphs, pie graphs, networks, taxonomic keys, tables, continuum scales, family trees, Venn diagrams, cycle diagrams, and content outlines. Research has verified their effectiveness at all grade levels. Concept maps show particular promise in determining whether students retain prior knowledge more efficiently.
The advance organizer model should be applied with flexibility. The three steps can be used flexibly and concurrently. It serves as a scaffold for learning and bridging the gap between the known and what is to be learned.
The advance organizer model is inherently deductive. You start with the big picture (the organizer), move to specific content (differentiation), and then show how the pieces relate (integration). Be careful not to confuse deductive teaching with lecturing. A deductive lesson can contain as much student interaction as an inductive lesson. The sequence is the difference, not the level of student engagement.
Use when the content is hierarchical or procedural: math operations, lab techniques, physical skills, writing processes. Best for breaking a complex skill into teachable steps and diagnosing where students get stuck.
Use when students need to understand what something is by learning its name, definition, characteristics, examples, and place in a hierarchy. Works in every subject where classification and categorization matter.
Use when the content requires students to see how parts relate to a whole. Requires a body of knowledge that can be organized hierarchically. Provides students with a map before they start the journey.
No model is inherently superior. Each has unique characteristics that assist the teacher in selecting a planning model. The teacher as a decision maker should choose the one that provides the greatest assistance in lesson planning, organizing, and implementing. You may use elements of more than one model in the same lesson.
Activity: Match the Model
Each lesson description below best fits one of the three models. Drag each to the correct model.
The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly.
David Ausubel , Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (1968)Each organizational model handles a different kind of content. Pick the one that fits what you are teaching, not the one with the catchiest name.
What it teaches: A skill or procedure with sequential steps.
Process: Break the skill into substeps. Teach each substep in order. Build to the whole skill.
Best for: Long division, lab procedures, lab safety, athletic moves, software steps.
What it teaches: An abstract concept defined by characteristics.
Process: Name the concept. Identify defining characteristics. Show examples and non-examples.
Best for: Democracy, photosynthesis, irony, ecosystems, fractions.
What it teaches: Relationships between new content and what students already know.
Process: Present a high-level framework first. Then fill in details. New material lands on a structure that already exists.
Best for: Dense reading, complex systems, units that connect to prior learning.
Knowing the three models is one thing. Knowing which to reach for when planning a lesson is harder. Pick the situation closest to yours and see what the model recommends.
Section 3 introduces three theories that push you to think beyond a single teaching method. The first is hemisphericity: how left-brain and right-brain functions relate to information processing. The second is learning styles: how students differ in the way they take in and process material. The third is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences: the idea that intelligence comes in at least eight forms, not one.
The common thread is variety. No single teaching approach reaches every student. The multi-methodology approach means planning lessons that use different methods, activities, and assessments so students with different strengths have a way in.
Hemisphericity is the study of where in the brain different types of mental functions occur. Research suggests that the right cerebral hemisphere is involved in visual, nonverbal, spatial, divergent, and intuitive thinking. The left cerebral hemisphere is involved in verbal, logical, categorical, detail-oriented, and convergent thinking. The right brain works more with approximations and creativity, while the left brain works more with specifics and analysis.
Verbal, logical, categorical, detail-oriented, convergent thinking. Processes the name for a face. Works with specifics and analysis. Reads books in a linear, sequential way. Focuses on rules and structure.
Visual, nonverbal, spatial, divergent, intuitive thinking. Processes the visual information that allows you to recognize a face. Works with approximations and creativity. Sees the big picture before the parts.
The fact that we can understand the kinds of functions that occur on each side of the brain is important because it helps educators understand that instruction must be planned to enhance the use of both hemispheres. Research conducted over many years has demonstrated that teachers predominantly emphasize objectives and instruction that focus on the left side of the brain. The majority of objectives focus on the cognitive, analytical, and convergent.
When you stress left-brain hemisphere content or processes, you can reinforce the learning by using techniques that incorporate right-brain hemisphere learning. Graphic organizers, pictures, diagrams, flowcharts, and student summaries provide an instructional double whammy. Include creativity in your instructional plans: design activities, art-based projects, music connections, and movement when they serve the objective.
No two people think exactly alike, and it is safe to say that no two people learn in exactly the same way. Teachers respond to this diversity in a number of ways, with one of the most persistent being grouping. At the elementary level, grouping often means dividing classes into subgroups on the basis of students' skills and abilities, particularly in math and reading. At the high school level, grouping often results in tracks, with the curriculum in each track aimed at different educational and vocational goals.
Students' cultural backgrounds and experiences influence how they understand new material and how they respond to and benefit from instruction. Differences in background, experience, socioeconomic status, culture, and language all influence learning. A question to first-grade students about where milk comes from may elicit one response from rural kids (cows) and a completely different one from city kids (the store).
Researchers have termed this dimension "learning style" and have developed instructional programs to meet the needs of different groups of students. Learning style or preference is usually defined as the cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that learners exhibit as they interact in the classroom environment. Students with different learning styles understand problems in different ways, and they tend to try to solve them in different ways.
Some research shows that an understanding of learning styles improves instruction. Other research shows there is little evidence that understanding one's learning style improves learning. Yet all scholars believe that it is still rather new, and educators must be cautious about applying laboratory research prematurely. When students are introduced to a new concept, their scheme for it might be disorganized, irrational, or just plain wrong. Such a scheme obviously will hinder learning. The takeaway: use learning styles as one tool among many, not as a label or a limit.
There are at least three key findings about human intelligence that are related to our discussion. First, intelligence is a dynamic quality: it is not fixed at birth. Second, through appropriate learning experiences, intelligence can be enhanced. Third, intelligence has many different attributes (Gardner 1993). The last finding, that intelligence has multiple facets rather than being associated only with verbal or quantitative aptitude, is the key element for instructional planning and sequencing.
The chief proponent of the concept of multiple intelligences is Howard Gardner. He identifies eight basic intelligences:
Gardner asserts that we all possess these eight intelligences, but schools tend to develop only the first two to any extent. As a consequence, six areas of intelligence are consciously depressed (discriminated against) by schooling. Many teachers find the theory of multiple intelligences appealing because it provides them with a logical system for planning.
A common criticism of the multiple intelligence theory is that there is no pre-post, longitudinal, empirical research to support Gardner's concept of multiple intelligences, and it is not consistent with cognitive neuroscience. Larry Cuban (2004), a scholar of school innovation, notes that the multiple intelligence theory usually is not fully implemented in classrooms. We close this section because there is a problem finding empirical evidence that clearly substantiates the concept. We note this, these eight items do provide a hint to teachers on how to provide a wide array of activities or formats to conduct classroom instruction.
Effective teachers use a wide variety of teaching methods and techniques. If you want to use an inductive presentation mode, your lesson will include at least the following elements: teaching questions, data of some nature, student research, applied or laboratory exercises, and lists of student generalizations.
If you plan to use a deductive mode of presentation, you will be using other elements: demonstrations, videos or films, student activities, guest speakers, assigned readings, and student reports.
The range of instructional strategies you can use in the classroom is freedom. We urge you to start by planning your objectives, decide what to teach, and then plan how to teach it. By varying your weekly calendar of activities, you will accommodate the spectrum of individual learning differences in your classroom. By using multi-methodology, you will not get stuck in the usual rut.
Remember that in your first year of teaching, you will have some great days during which the students are engaged and enjoy learning. There will be other days during which you feel students are not learning and seem to be out of touch. It could be that the strategy you selected was not appropriate for learning on that bad day and was very appropriate on the day that was a success. Your task is to find the key to turn on those students, and multi-methodology gives you more keys to try.
Reading about sequencing and organizational models is one level of understanding. Choosing a model when a real lesson is in front of you is another. These four scenarios put you in planning situations where you have to make instructional design decisions. Your choices determine whether the lesson hangs together or falls apart.
Each scenario covers content from Chapters 5 and 6: planning factors, sequencing principles, content forms, deductive and inductive reasoning, and the three organizational models. Work through all four. When you make a wrong choice, read the feedback. The explanation is where the learning happens.
Look at the paths you took. For each wrong turn, go back to the relevant chapter tab and find the section that covers the concept. Write one sentence explaining what you misunderstood and what you understand now. This kind of reflection is the same process expert teachers use in Stage 3 of the Planning Cycle (Chapter 5): evaluate, identify the gap, revise.
These videos were selected because each one teaches a concept from this module in a way the textbook cannot. Reading about planning gives you the structure. Watching an experienced teacher walk through a lesson plan shows you what those structures look like in practice. Reading about sequencing gives you the principles. Watching a lesson unfold shows you what good sequencing produces in a classroom.
One practical suggestion: as you watch each video, write one sentence connecting something in the video to something specific from your reading. A connection, not a summary. You will use these connections in your VoiceThread discussion.
These instructor videos walk through each chapter's key concepts. Copies of the PowerPoint slides are in the Modules section on Canvas.
Click the card to flip. Mark each one "Got it" or "Review again" to see what to study next.
0 got it · 0 to review
Match each term to its definition. Click two cards to flip them. Matching pairs stay open.
Solved in 0 moves and 0 seconds.
Match each Gardner intelligence to its description.
Solved in 0 moves and 0 seconds.
Match each planning factor to the question it answers.
Solved in 0 moves and 0 seconds.
These are optional. They expand on concepts from the chapters and may help with your assignments.
Wiggins and McTighe's "backward design" framework. Start with what students should understand, then design the assessment, then plan the instruction. A different way to think about Chapter 5's planning sequence.
Novak and Canas on how graphic organizers support concept analysis. Connects to Chapter 6's discussion of advance organizers and graphic representations.
Research on whether matching instruction to learning styles improves outcomes. A useful counterpoint to Chapter 6's discussion. The evidence is weaker than the textbook suggests, but varying your methods still matters for other reasons.